This 2015 article proposes the “dual action of estrogen hypothesis,” suggesting that estradiol (E₂) can act in the brain in both rapid (seconds to minutes) and slow (hours to days) manners. The rapid action is typically initiated at the cell membrane, while the slow action involves genomic signaling through estrogen
This review explores the role of various hormone therapies in managing congestive heart failure (CHF). It highlights the significance of neurohormonal systems in CHF pathophysiology and discusses treatments like the dual-acting drug valsartan/sacubitril, which shows promise alongside traditional medications such as beta-blockers, ACE inhibitors, ARBs, and mineralocorticoid receptor antagonists. Clinical
This 2017 systematic review evaluated the efficacy of off-label augmentation strategies in unipolar depression by analyzing data from meta-analyses, randomized controlled trials, and case studies. The review identified five agents—modafinil, ketamine, pindolol, estrogen, and testosterone (in hormone-deficient patients)—with evidence supporting their clinical effectiveness when added to antidepressant regimens. Other agents
This 2010 review explores the role of progesterone in bone health, emphasizing its contribution to bone formation and maintenance in women. Progesterone stimulates osteoblast differentiation and, alongside estrogen, helps regulate bone remodeling. The article highlights that cyclic progestin therapy can prevent bone loss in premenopausal women with amenorrhea or subclinical
This 2022 recommendation from the US Preventive Services Task Force (USPSTF) advises against the use of hormone therapy—either combined estrogen and progestin or estrogen alone—for the primary prevention of chronic conditions such as cardiovascular disease, osteoporosis, and cancer in asymptomatic postmenopausal individuals. The USPSTF assigns a Grade D recommendation, indicating
This 2009 systematic analysis reviewed 66 studies on estrogen’s effects in rat models of cerebral ischemia. The findings revealed that estrogen’s impact is dose-dependent: low doses administered via injections or silastic capsules exhibited neuroprotective effects, whereas high doses delivered through slow-release pellets were associated with increased ischemic damage. The study
This 2021 review evaluates how different formulations, dosages, and administration routes of menopausal hormone therapy (MHT) influence cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk. Oral unopposed estrogens positively affect lipoprotein levels, glycemia, and insulin sensitivity, but adding progestogens can attenuate these benefits. Micronized progesterone has the least negative impact among progestogens. Transdermal estrogens
This 2017 review by McEwen and Milner examines how sex hormones, including estrogens, androgens, and progestogens, influence brain structure, function, and behavior across the lifespan. The authors highlight that sex hormone receptors are distributed throughout the brain, not limited to reproductive regions, and are located in both nuclear and membrane-associated
This review article explores how genetic variations affect choline metabolism and dietary requirements. It highlights that men and postmenopausal women are more likely to experience liver or muscle dysfunction when deprived of dietary choline, while premenopausal women may resist choline deficiency due to estrogen-induced expression of the PEMT gene, which
This observational study examined the effects of various contraceptives on laboratory assessments of thyroid function, focusing on free thyroxine (FT4) and free triiodothyronine (FT3) levels. The findings indicate that contraceptive use, particularly those containing estrogen, can influence thyroid hormone measurements by increasing thyroid-binding globulin levels, potentially altering free hormone concentrations.
