This 2012 review explores the vascular effects of estrogenic menopausal hormone therapy (MHT). Estrogen exerts both genomic and non-genomic actions on vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs), including inhibition of contraction mechanisms such as intracellular calcium, protein kinase C, and Rho-kinase pathways. Estrogen also modulates the vascular cytoskeleton, extracellular matrix, lipid
This 2019 randomized controlled trial investigated the relationship between plasma estradiol (E2) levels and subclinical atherosclerosis progression in 596 healthy postmenopausal women, stratified into early (
The Early versus Late Intervention Trial with Estradiol (ELITE) was a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study that assessed the impact of oral 17β-estradiol (1 mg/day) on subclinical atherosclerosis in 643 healthy postmenopausal women. Participants were stratified into early (
This systematic review critically evaluates the discrepancies between the Women’s Health Initiative (WHI) hormone trials and previous epidemiological studies on hormone therapy (HT) in postmenopausal women. While WHI findings suggest that combined HT may increase risks of cardiovascular disease (CVD), stroke, and dementia, earlier observational studies indicated protective effects. The
This article reviews the benefits of hormone replacement therapy (HRT) for postmenopausal women, specifically in reducing the risk of coronary heart disease (CHD) and improving overall mortality. The study supports the “timing hypothesis,” indicating that initiating HRT shortly after menopause (within 10 years or before age 60) provides significant benefits,
